Belief bias occurs when:

• A. Accepting an invalid argument because its conclusion aligns with beliefs
• B. Believing something because you want it to be true
• C. Relying on memory of vivid events
• D. Evaluating decisions by outcomes

Answer: (A)

Belief bias happens when you judge an argument more by whether its conclusion matches what you already think than by how sound the reasoning actually is. You’re more likely to accept an invalid argument if its conclusion aligns with your beliefs, and you’re more likely to reject a valid argument if it conflicts with them.

For example, you might see an argument that says: If policy X improves the economy, people are happier; people are happier; therefore policy X improves the economy. This form is invalid (it’s affirming the consequent), but if you favor policy X, you may accept the conclusion simply because it fits your belief, not because the logic is sound.

This is the concept behind the correct answer. It’s different from wishful thinking (believing something because you want it to be true), from relying on vivid memories (a vividness effect), or from judging choices by their outcomes (outcome bias).